Author: John Toland
Translator: He Zhongxia
Publisher: Zhejiang Literature and Art Publishing House
Publication time: March 1, 2020
prologue
On New Year's Day 1918, Europe had already spent nearly three and a half months in the midst of war, on the brink of collapse. Millions of soldiers have lost their lives, been injured or disabled in the war, the land has been ravaged, and the people are suffering from hunger, cold, poverty, and displacement. All parties involved in the war firmly believe that their division is renowned and unstoppable. Both the Allied and the Allied powers viewed war itself as a large-scale adventure, believing that victory was within reach. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
However, over time, the war fell into a bloody and brutal stalemate. Both sides engaged in intense trench warfare, with gains and losses of no more than an inch of land. Belgium, France, Italy, the Balkans, Mesopotamia, Palestine - on various fronts, soldiers from many countries continue to sacrifice themselves but are unable to make up for the situation. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
In April of the previous year,U.S.AJoining the war with great enthusiasm seemed to be the only hope left for the Allied powers.Admiral David Beatty, Commander of the Grand Fleet of the British NavySir David Beatty sent a telegram to The New York Times on New Year's Day stating, "The United States will undoubtedly become the decisive factor in this world war." However, the US military has only 100000 troops deployed in France; If Have you tried this before? Share your story!General PershingIf the army can depart smoothly, there will be a large force of "at least 5 million people" coming. This force is one fourth more powerful than the entire Allied army on the Western Front, and the victory or defeat of the war is determined by the Western Front. Don't forget to share your experience!
The United States was indeed the hope of the Allied powers, but at that time, the British leadership was skeptical about whether the US military could arrive in time to save the situation. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Lord Milner Lord Milner was one of the members of the wartime cabinet and once said, 'The hope of our army's victory is very slim.'. Have you tried this before? Share your story!Lohyd George Lloyd George's close friendSir George Riddle(Sir George Riddell) was even more depressed. When he had lunch with Winston Churchill, he said: "If the war continues for another 12 months, let alone defeat the Germans, we will collapse first." Churchill had supported the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign, and was still committed to making the public forget about it, but he did not lose his courage - or optimism: "We must fight to the end, who knows when the Germans will collapse." Don't forget to share your experience!
The pessimistic tone has its reasons.1917 can be called a year of many disasters and difficulties. The disaster may not necessarily be due to the strength of the German army, but rather to the mistakes and misfortunes of the Allied powers themselves. Don't forget to share your experience!
Firstly, in the spring,FrancegeneralRobert George NevilleThe large-scale offensive planned by Robert Georges Nivelle was brutally defeated. The general has no airs when it comes to dealing with people, but he is arrogant, has a hot temper, and lacks experience as a senior commander. He thought that a devastating attack would bring victory, but ended up falling into the trap of the German army. The German army quietly withdrew their frontline troops and immediately annihilated the advancing French armored units with artillery fire. The number of deaths is shocking, and there has been a mutiny in the French army. In order to quell the chaos, the top military officials executed some soldiers, and the newly appointed commander Henri P é tain also made some concessions. However, the morale of the French army was greatly affected, and the spirit of fighting to resist the German invasion has disappeared. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
In June,britainIn order to end the warFlandersThe Flanders region launched an attack alone, exacerbating the misfortune of the Allied powers. On the morning of the 7th, 19 huge landmines filled with nearly one million pounds of explosives exploded on the front line near Ypres, opening the curtain of the battle. Even Lloyd George, who was in his study in London, felt the loud noise and vibration coming from afar. After the landmines, 2330 cannons and howitzers appeared, covering the sky with artillery fire. 80000 soldiers charged from the British front and quickly achieved their initial goal. However, the initial victory was just an illusion; Three and a half months later, the long battle finally came to an end. The loss is: 244897 casualties; The result is: advance less than six miles. There were widespread complaints among the British army, and soldiers composed many satirical poems and ballads, but fortunately there was no mutiny. What do you think about this?
In 1917, people in the rear also had a difficult time. Domestically, we are not only facing bombing attacks from the German army, but also shortages of food and clothing caused by U-boat raids. The people lined up in long queues to buy food, and many speculated and hoarded, becoming a trend throughout the country; People felt highly nervous, but there was no riot. The British became a little grumpy, but they did not break down mentally. The joke was still true. However, behind the humor lies resentment. The workers are dissatisfied with their living conditions; The middle class feels as though they are bearing the heaviest burden as always; The top management only knows how to argue endlessly, and people are gradually getting tired of it. What do you think about this?
The disastrous defeat in Nevers caused huge losses, and France at the beginning of the new year has not yet recovered. Although the military mutiny has been quelled, the French military is afraid of repeating the same mistake and dare not put too much pressure on the troops. Don't forget to share your experience!So a new slogan emerged - defense, with the goal of minimizing casualties to the greatest extent possible. This mentality is not only narrow, but also dangerous; From this psychological perspective, the ideas of defeatism and non resistance began to spread throughout the country. Don't forget to share your experience!
Intellectuals, together with the bourgeoisie, sway their lips and tongues for peace. The major French financiers were afraid that Britain would establish industrial hegemony after the war, and some writers shared their concerns, including Romain Rolland and Henri Barbusse. There is also a group of traitors who are active in the shadows, hoping to negotiate peace with Germany. There is a somewhat legendary adventurer named Bolo who organized a massive network of collaborators, even including Senator Charles Humbert. In September, Poirot and Humbert were arrested, which accelerated the downfall of the Painlev é government. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
The downfall of the Panleway government occurred in mid November, and he was succeeded byGeorges Clemenceau Georges Clemenceau
19061909
He is rebellious by nature, loves free thinking, and has a somewhat unconventional temperament in both public and private. He once taught at a rural school in Virginia and witnessed Grant's army march into Richmond in 1865. He married an American woman. In terms of femininity, he is on par with Lloyd George, who openly maintains an ambiguous relationship with his secretary. Both of them are tough guys, and without their iron fisted leadership, the war is likely to end in failure. Don't forget to share your experience!
For several months in a row, Clemenceau devoted himself to the movement against surrenderists. Despite being hated by many, including President Poincar é, there were still many patriots - on both the right and the left - who supported him. His nickname 'Tiger' is well deserved and well-known to everyone. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Clemenceau showed full confidence in taking over the position of Prime Minister, and his cabinet manifesto was resolute and concise, which deeply shocked the audience. Clemenceau stated that he would immediately deal with the rebels, "no longer allowing the spread of non resistance, no longer tolerating Germany's scheming, and no longer indulging in acts of treason big and small; war is the only path we have. He only holds a cabinet meeting once a week, and the power of the government is actually concentrated in him. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
France implemented a rationing system for natural gas, electricity, and coal, but finally restored order and revitalized its spirit. In order to save fuel, cinemas and theaters only operate three days a week. Museums in Paris have all closed down, except for the Invalides where some spoils of war are displayed to promote patriotism. Caf é s and restaurants close early, and the streets of the "City of Light" are dark without lights. After 10 pm, there are no more people around. In addition, there are many frustrating issues such as shortages of vegetables, cheese, sugar, and meat, but people have accepted all of them. They finally found a trustworthy leader. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
France's allyItalyAlthough I haven't tasted these pains, there is a bitter feeling. Seven weeks ago, their troops wereAustro Hungarian EmpireThe Border Towncard BoretoCaporetto suffered a disastrous defeat, with 275000 Italian soldiers surrendering to Austria in this single battle. Italy also tried its best to regroup, and the people reunited under the propaganda of two people: one was the poet D'Annunzio; The other is an unknown editor from Milan named Have you tried this before? Share your story!Mussolini.
The disaster experienced by the Allied Powers in 1917 also did not spare Germany.The world only noticed Britain's disastrous defeat in Flanders, and generally ignored Germany's considerable losses.Germany's main ally - the Austro Hungarian EmpireAlthough Caporetto achieved brilliant results, I've found that it's actually facing disintegration.The Habsburg dynasty is on the verge of collapseThe old emperor Franz Josef passed away in 1916, and the young emperor Karl, who succeeded him, was plotting to negotiate peace with the Allied powers through several Bourbon royal families. Don't forget to share your experience!
At the beginning of the war, the internal political situation in Germany was as stable as a rock, but the "hungry" winter of 1916 and 1917 caused their stable political situation to begin to crumble. Faced with difficulties, the public is restless and workers are demanding political rights. Despite the coalition of centrist and left-wing parties hoping to resolve the issue peacefully, the true rulers - the German Emperor and the military - refused their request. After the March Revolution in Russia, the situation became increasingly critical: 300000 German workers were inspired by the Russian Revolution and held strike movements in Berlin and Leipzig. Even more terrifying was the occurrence of a mutiny, which spread throughout some naval fleets. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
By the New Year, the blockade imposed by the British navy had worsened the shortage of food and clothing. Life is filled with substitutes: bread is made from sawdust and potato peels, wrapped in a layer of chalk powder, and used as flour. People have to feed on dogs and cats ("roof rabbits"), and almost no milk or other meat can be seen. Except for those wealthy families, citizens can only wrap themselves in coats to keep warm all day long and gradually become accustomed to it. What do you think about this?
However, German military leaders still have confidence in victory because Russia has actually withdrawn from the war. A few weeks ago, the Bolsheviks overthrew Kerensky's Social Revolutionary Party interim government and immediately called for peace negotiations in Germany. What do you think about this?The first round of negotiations was held in Brest Litovsk, during which Germany proposed to annex the Baltic states and Poland; The negotiations ended with the arrival of New Year's Eve before the two countries reached a consensus on their opinions Don't forget to share your experience!But the backbone of the German Supreme Command and the chief of military suppliesErich LudendorffErich Ludendorff believed that when negotiations resumed in a few days, the Bolsheviks would sign this peace treaty.
Ludendorff was confident that the majority of the troops from the 80 divisions on the Eastern Front would soon be transferred to the Western Front; He plans to launch a large-scale attack on the western front and conquer the world with one fell swoop. If everything goes smoothly, it will be the first time Germany has defeated the enemy in a war. In the eyes of the German high command, they were only a stone's throw away from victory, but always suffered from a shortage of troops, artillery, and aircraft; Therefore, this plan is enough to make them ecstatic. Marshal of the Army, Chief of the General Staff Have you tried this before? Share your story!Paul von Hindenburg Paul von Hindenburg wrote that after three years of hard work, they finally achieved their long-awaited goal: "Our army has no worries and can turn to the western front to show off their strength; the task now is to prepare with all our might. Don't forget to share your experience!
The German Supreme Command believed that as long as the plan was implemented smoothly, a decisive victory was in sight. Therefore, they concluded that the time had come for the lion to speak loudly. Ludendorff quickly took action. On January 2, 1918, the German Imperial Council was held at Bellevue Castle, where Ludendorff firmly stated that once Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Brest Litovsk peace talksRestart, he will propose more stringent conditions for peace talks to Russia. The German Emperor opposed the complete annexation of Polish territory, and Ludendorff was furious and did not conceal it. He even claimed that the boundaries set by the German emperor could not be considered as the final plan before he personally participated in the discussion. This statement caused an uproar among the attendees. The monarch looked at Hindenburg with a sorrowful expression, attempting to gain support, but to his surprise, Hindenburg also agreed with the opinion of his iron fisted subordinate. In addition, Ludendorff insisted that the Brest Litovsk Treaty must be signed as soon as possible in order to launch an offensive to the west. Don't forget to share your experience!
Two days later, Ludendorff threatened to resign, pushing the situation to the forefrontTelegrams flooded towards German Emperor Wilhelm II, urging Germany not to lose this military genius. More importantly, Hindenburg promised to fully support Ludendorff. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
The situation reached its climax on January 7th: the Marshal personally wrote a letter to the German Emperor, with many words and phrases underlined. This petition is like an ultimatum, full of anger and resentment, as if Hindenburg is a principal admonishing a unruly student. Don't forget to share your experience!
General Ludendorff and I are deeply saddened by the events of January 2nd; we have come to realize that His Majesty does not care about our opinions on major issues concerning the survival of Germany... Our country has its own political and economic situation, and for this reason, overthrowing the dominant forces of the Western Front is necessary Don't forget to share your experience!
Hindenburg stated that in order to accomplish this cause, the German Emperor must make a choice between diplomats and the highest command. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Faced with Hindenburg's stern admonition, William II had no other choice.
In this way, Ludendorff may have become the most powerful person; The Supreme Command is rapidly preparing for the spring offensive in order to solve all problems in one fell swoop. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Germany, on the other hand, has embarked on a long and uncertain path with an uncertain future and life or death. What do you think about this?
