Author: Orlando Figes
Translator: Lv Pin, Zhu Zhu
Publisher: Nanjing University Press
Publication time: October 2018
Map List
Conflict zones involved in the Near East issue
Danube River Conflict Zone
The coalition forces are advancing towards Sevastopol
The Battle of Alma
Caucasus region
The Battle of Balaclava
The Battle of Eichmann
Siege of Sevastopol
preface
The scale and casualties of the Crimean War were enormous, but its impact was overshadowed by the two subsequent world wars. For people today, this seems to be a relatively insignificant war, like those tombstones and nameplates, almost forgotten. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Even in the countries and regions that participated in this war: Russia, Britain, France, Piedmont Sardinia in Italy, and the Ottoman Empire, including those that later became part of Romania and Bulgaria, not many people today are aware of the Crimean War What do you think about this?But for people living before World War I, the Crimean War was the most important war of their lives, just as the two World Wars were important to people living in the 20th century. What do you think about this?
The Crimean War caused great losses, with at least 750000 soldiers killed or dying, two-thirds of whom were Russian soldiers. France lost about 100000 soldiers, while Britain's losses were much smaller, only 20000 people, because the number of British troops participating in the war was much smaller (a total of 98000 British soldiers and sailors participated, while France had 310000 people). But even so, for things like Let me know your thoughts in the comments!VichiemptonLosing five strong laborers in such a small rural area is still a heavy blow. stayCounty Cork, IrelandIn the Whitegate, Aghada, and Farsid areas of County Cork, the British army recruited a large number of troops, resulting in nearly one-third of the male population dying in Crimea. What do you think about this?
No one has counted the number of civilian casualties. Many civilians died from artillery bombardment, starved to death during the siege, or contracted diseases from soldiers. In places such as the Caucasus, Balkans, and Crimea, many civilians have died in collective massacres and ethnic cleansing. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!The Crimean War was the first 'full-scale war', and the wars that commonly affect civilians and cause humanitarian disasters today had already emerged in the 19th century. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
The Crimean War was the first truly modern warThe latest industrial technology, modern rifles, steamships, and railways were used, as well as new logistics and communication methods. Important inventions in telegraph and military medicine, as well as war correspondents and photographers, also appeared on the battlefield. At the same time, the Crimean War was the last war that still adhered to the spirit of chivalry. On the battlefield, both sides relied on messengers to deliver messages, and during breaks in battle, they agreed to cease fire in order to transfer bodies and treat the wounded. The early stages of the war occurred Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Alma River(River Alma) andBalaclavaThe battles of Balaklava, such as the famous Charge of the Light Brigade, were no different from the fighting style during the Napoleonic Wars. However, the longest and most critical battle during the Crimean War—— Don't forget to share your experience!Siege of SevastopolBut it can be said to be the predecessor of the industrial trench warfare from 1914 to 1918. During the eleven and a half month siege, both sides dug 120 kilometers of trenches and fired 150 million bullets and 5 million shells of various calibers. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
The name Crimean War cannot reflect its transnational scale, nor can it reflect the significance of this war to Europe, Russia, and the warring regions from the Balkans to Jerusalem, from Constantinople to the Caucasus. What do you think about this?This region is the area covered by the so-called 'Eastern Question', an international problem caused by the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Maybe we can use the Russian name for this war: Let me know your thoughts in the comments!The Eastern WarEastern War This can at least link it to the 'Eastern Question'; Or use the name often seen in many Türkiye documents: What do you think about this?The Russo Turkish WarTurco-Russian War Placed against the backdrop of centuries long conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. However, these names cannot be reflected in the Crimean War, Don't forget to share your experience!Western interventionThis key factor.
The Crimean War began in 1853At that time, Ottoman and Russian armies were at war along the Danube River in the Moldavia and Wallachia duchies of present-day Romania. The war then spread to the Caucasus, where the activities of local Muslim tribes against Russia were encouraged and supported by Türkiye and Britain. Subsequently, the war spread to other areas of the Black Sea. In 1854, Britain and France joined Türkiye, and Austria also threatened to join the anti Russian alliance. In this situation, the Tsar withdrew his army from these two duchies and shifted the battlefield to Crimea. During 1854-1855, military conflicts also occurred in several other places: in the Baltic Sea, the British Royal Navy planned to attack the Russian capital St. Petersburg; In the White Sea, the Royal Navy shelled Solovetsky Monastery in July 1854, which was then the political and economic center of Russia in the White Sea; The war even extended to the Pacific coast of Siberia. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
The Crimean War not only involved multiple countries and regions, but also involved a large number of peopleIn addition to military personnel, this book also tells the stories of many others: kings and queens, princes and princes, court attendants, diplomats, religious leaders, Polish and Hungarian revolutionaries, doctors, nurses, journalists, artists and photographers, flyer writers, and writers. Speaking of writers, of course, there is no one else who can compare Have you tried this before? Share your story!TolstoyIt can provide a better perspective for Russians. During the Crimean War, he served as aRussian military officerOn three battlefieldsCaucasus, Danube and CrimeaParticipated in the battle. This writing perspective may be exactly what readers of this book expect, but it may also be what some readers are concerned about. Anyway, this book references and quotes a large number of letters and memoirs from officers and soldiers who participated in the war, including ordinary British soldiers, French Algerian light infantry, and Russian serf warriors. Readers can understand this war from the perspectives of these people. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Chapter 4: The End of Peace in Europe
May 1, 1851The Great Exhibition opened in Hyde Park, London. During the Expo, a total of six million people, equivalent to one third of the British population at that time, came to visit the Crystal Palace. The Crystal Palace was the largest glass building in the world at that time, displaying 13000 pieces of mechanical products, handicrafts, and various other items from around the world. After more than twenty years of social and economic turmoil, What do you think about this?The World's Fair seems to be showcasing to the world a prosperous and peaceful future based on the principles of British industrialization and free trade. Have you tried this before? Share your story!The Crystal Palace itself is an architectural miracle that proves Britain's creativity in engineering and manufacturing. In response to this, the exhibits inside the Crystal Palace are also presenting to the world: in every industrial field, Britain leads the world. Have you tried this before? Share your story!The Crystal Palace symbolizes Pax Britannica, an image that Britain hopes to promote widely in Europe and around the world.
The only threat to peace seems to come from FranceOn December 2, 1851, the anniversary of Napoleon's coronation in 1804, the President of the Second French RepublicLouis NapoleonLaunch a coup, declare the abolition of the constitution, and establish oneself as a dictator. In November of the following year, through a national referendum, the Second French Republic officially became the Second Empire. Don't forget to share your experience!On December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon ascended to the throne and became Napoleon IIINapoleon III
The news of Napoleon III's accession to the throne alerted European powers.The British fear the resurgence of Napoleon's expansionismMembers of parliament are calling for the recall of the Lisbon Squadron to defend the English Channel.Lord RaglanLord Raglan, the future leader of the British army in the Crimean War, spent the summer of 1852 planning how to defend London in the event of a French naval attack. Throughout 1853, this task remained a key focus of the British Navy's plans. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Austriaforeign ministerCount BuolCount Buol strongly demanded that Napoleon publicly declare his intention for peace.czarThe demand is humiliating, demanding Napoleon to declare that there are no attempts at external expansion; At the same time, it also assured Austria that in the event of a French invasion, Russia would provide 60000 troops for support. In order to alleviate the concerns of the great powers, Napoleon in October 1852 Don't forget to share your experience!BordeauxBordeaux issued a statement: "Those who do not trust me say that the emperor means war; but I say that the emperor means peace Don't forget to share your experience!
in fact,It is not unreasonable for people to have doubts about Louis Napoleon.At that timeEuropean patternnamelyEstablished to contain France after Napoleon's defeatIt's hard to imagine Napoleon III would be satisfied with this. He did win the sincere and widespread support of the French, but this was because he was good at stimulating people's good memories of the Napoleonic era, although in all respects he was not comparable to his uncle. He has a large but unnatural body, lame legs, a small beard on his lips, and a goatee on his chin, looking more like a bank clerk than Napoleon Bonaparte reincarnated. In 1855, after Queen Victoria first met Napoleon III, she described him in her diary as "very short, but with a big head and chest, as if he should have grown on someone much taller than him". Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Napoleon III's motivation for formulating foreign policy was largely to follow the tradition of Bonapartists.His goal is to at least turn France into a widely respected and influential country, even if he cannot restore his uncle's glory. He hopes to change Don't forget to share your experience!The European pattern established in 1815Transforming Europe into a family of free nations, as envisioned by Napoleon I.He believes that this goal can be achieved by forming an alliance with BritainHis political close friend and Minister of the InteriorDuke DepersiniDuc de Persigny stayed in London for a period of time in 1852, where he convinced Napoleon III that Britain was no longer dominated by nobles, but by the emerging "bourgeois power" that would also dominate the entire European continent in the future. By forming an alliance with Britain, France will be able to "develop a great and glorious foreign policy, seeking revenge for past failures. Forming an alliance with Britain will benefit us more than fighting a new war at Waterloo. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Louis Napoleon, 1854
But Russia is different, France can restore its national honor by fighting against RussiaVarious memories of past dealings with Russia: Napoleon's withdrawal from Moscow, the subsequent military failure, the Russian army's occupation of Paris, etc., have always made the French feel sad and humiliated. Russia was still the main driving force behind the European framework established in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France. Don't forget to share your experience!In the eyes of the French, the tsar was the enemy of freedom and an obstacle to the development of a free country in Europe. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!andNikolaistillThe only European monarch who does not recognize Napoleon IIIBritain, Austria, and Prussia are all willing to recognize his monarchical status, even if Austria and Prussia are reluctant; But Nicholas refused to admit it, citing that the emperor was chosen by fate, not by a national referendum. When referring to Napoleon III, the Tsar deliberately used "my friend" (mon ami) instead of the commonly used "my brother" (mon fr è re) among European monarchs to show his contempt for Napoleon III. Some of Napoleon III's aides, especially Depelsini, hoped that he could take this opportunity to sever ties with Russia. But Napoleon III did not want private quarrels to become the starting point of his rule, so he retorted, "Brothers are predetermined, but friends are optional What do you think about this?
In Napoleon III's view, the dispute with Russia over the Holy Land issue could be used to unite France, which had been divided by the revolutions of 1848-1849. If the Second French Empire could fight against Russia, the 'European gendarme', for freedom, the left-wing revolutionary forces would support him and accept Napoleon III's coup d 'é tat and accession to the throne; At the same time, the Catholic right-wing will continue to support him, as they have been pushing for a holy war to eliminate Eastern Orthodox heretics that threaten Christianity and French civilization. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
It was in this context that Napoleon III appointed Vallet, who held an extreme Catholic stance, as the ambassador to Constantinople. Have you tried this before? Share your story!Vallet is a member of the Quai d'Orsay, a powerful clerical lobbying group within the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. According to Depersini, this group has been using its influence to exaggerate the consequences of the Holy Land dispute. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Chapter 12: Paris and the New Order
peace conferenceThe Peace Congress is planned toOn the afternoon of February 25th, 1856stayThe French Ministry of Foreign Affairs held a meeting at the Port of Versailles in ParisAt noon, the excited crowd had already gathered at the Olympic Pier, waiting for the arrival of negotiation delegations from various countries. From Pont de la Concorde to Rue d'I é na, crowds of onlookers crowded everywhere, forcing the deployment of infantry and military police to maintain order in order to clear the way for foreign envoys' carriages to pass through and arrive Let me know your thoughts in the comments!The newly constructed Ministry of Foreign Affairs building.
The foreign delegation gradually arrived from 1 pm, and whenever they stepped out of the carriage and entered the Foreign Ministry building, the crowd automatically erupted into cheers of "Long live peace!" and "Long live the emperor. The representatives dressed in morning gowns gathered in the magnificent Hall of Ambassadors. Don't forget to share your experience!
There is a large round table covered with green velvet in the hall, with twelve armchairs placed beside it. The Ambassador Hall showcases the decorative art of the Second French Empire, with crimson satin curtains hanging from the walls. The only life size portrait in the hall is Don't forget to share your experience!Napoleon III and Empress EugenieThe portrait. The two people in the portrait stared at the representatives as if constantly reminding them that France had become the arbiter of international affairs. There is a marble bust of Napoleon I on a table by the fireplace, who has been unpopular in the diplomatic circle for over forty years. What do you think about this?Napoleon III believed that the convening of the Paris Peace Conference marked the return of the Napoleonic dynasty in France to the center of European power, the "European Union". Don't forget to share your experience!
Choosing Paris as the location for the peace conference reflects France's regaining its position as a European powerhouse. The only other possible place for peace talks is Vienna, where the Treaty of 1815 was signed. However, Vienna was rejected by the British, because since the beginning of the Crimean War, the British have been full of doubts about the true intentions of the Austrian diplomatic efforts. Now, when all diplomatic forces gather in Paris, Vienna seems to have become an outdated city. Who can deny that after all of this, France's power has expanded Have you tried this before? Share your story!French Foreign Minister Count ValevskyAfter learning that he would be authorized to preside over the peace talks, he wrote to Napoleon III“Only France can benefit from this dispute. Today, France ranks first in Europe
Three months agoParis held a World ExpoThat was a dazzling international exhibition, comparable to the 1851 London International Exposition, with five million visitors visiting theExhibition hall on the Champs - É lys é esThese two events have attracted a lot of attention, placing Paris at the center of Europe. This was a very important victory for Napoleon III - the desire to gain prestige both domestically and internationally was the driving force behind his decision to participate in the Crimean War. Since the start of the peace process last autumn, he has become a key player, and all parties rely on him to meet their own interests. Everyone has great respect for Emperor Napoleon, which surprises me, "Princess Lieven wrote in a letter to Baroness Meindorf on November 9th." This war elevated him to a high position, and so did France. England did not benefit from it Don't forget to share your experience!
Throughout the winter, peace negotiations have been ongoing, and by February, when representatives from various countries gathered in Paris, the vast majority of controversial issues had been resolved. Let me know your thoughts in the comments! The main obstacle to the negotiations is Britain's tough stance, and Britain is not in a hurry to end the war What do you think about this?, because in the past 18 months, they have not won a major battle, and cannot satisfy their sense of honor, nor can they account for the huge losses. After all, the French contributed to the capture of Sevastopol. Encouraged by the aggressive attitude of newspapers and the public, Let me know your thoughts in the comments!PalmerstonHe reiterated the minimum conditions he proposed on October 9th and threatened that if Russia did not accept the peace conditions proposed by Britain, Britain would continue to fight and launch a spring offensive in the Baltic Sea. He addressed the Foreign Minister Have you tried this before? Share your story!ClarendonApply pressure and do not make any compromise unless Russia fully accepts the conditions of the UK at the Paris Peace Conference. Don't forget to share your experience!
Despite his resolute attitude, Palmerston's demands have been constantly changing. By November, he had already given upCherkessThe requirement for independence is that no party can sign the treaty on behalf of that region. However, he continues to insist that Russia must abandon the Caucasus and Central Asia regions, and believes that as long as Britain maintains a tough stance, this goal can be achieved. He wrote a letter to Clarendon on February 25th, emphasizing that Russia's participation in the negotiations was low and weak, and that they dared to oppose Britain's latest peace conditions, which was a "reckless" behavior. The British condition is that Russian warships and weapons are completely withdrawn from the Black Sea area, and Russian troops must "leave all Türkiye territories (including Kars) occupied by them". Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Palmerston emphasized that these conditions were "not intended to bring shame to Russia... but rather to demonstrate and swear that Russia has sincerely abandoned its aggressive intentions" Don't forget to share your experience!Palmerston reminded Clarendon to be wary of Count Orlov, the head of the Russian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, whose words exposed his anti Russian stance Have you tried this before? Share your story!
As for Orlov, I know him very well: he appears civilized and polite on the outside, but his heart is filled with the rudeness, arrogance, and pride of Russians. He will use his power to bully others, but try his best not to show any trace. As long as he feels there is a chance of success, he will definitely be frugal. He carries all the cunning of a semi civilized barbarian on him. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
The French and Italians are disgusted with Palmerston's behaviorKing of PiedmontVictor Emmanuel II simply described Palmerston as a 'crazy animal'.
The French are eager to seek peace, and unlike the British, who insist on punishing Russia, they need to reconcile with the Russians in order to realize Napoleon III's plan for Italy's future. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!France has always held a sympathetic attitude towards the unification of Italy, believing that it can help Piedmont regain control from Austria Don't forget to share your experience!Lombardy - VenetiaRegion and willHabsburg powerRemove from the rest of Italy. In exchange, France can reoccupySavoy (Savoy) andNiceNice These two regions were occupied by France in 1792, but were returned to Piedmont at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. To achieve this goal, France needs Russia's support, or at least to maintain armed neutrality, in order to defeat Austria, Have you tried this before? Share your story!So the French are unwilling to comply with the British's intention to punish Russia.
The main disagreement between France and Britain lies in the boundary delineation of BessarabiaAll parties had agreed that Russia must return this region to the Ottoman Empire's Moldavian Principality, but Palmerston demanded even higher, stating that Russia should not have any way to enter Don't forget to share your experience!Danube regionThis tough stance has received support from Austria, as this area is the biggest concern for Austrians. But at the same time, the Russians also want to win the maximum benefits for themselves in the negotiations in Bessarabia, and their chips are in their hands Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Kars,And has the support of the French.
In the end, facing pressure from Britain and Austria, Napoleon III convinced Count Orlov to accept a compromise plan:In general, Russia lost one third of the land in Pisarabia that it seized from Türkiye in 1812, including the Danube Delta, but it kept the Bulgarian residential area in Pisarabia and the strategically important ridge extending from the Netherlands to the southeast. What do you think about this?The British claimed diplomatic victory, the Austrians celebrated the liberation of the Danube region, and the Russians felt a national humiliation, because this was the first time since the 17th century that Russia had ceded territory to the Turks. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
On other major issues, Western powers had already reached a basic consensus before the Paris Peace Conference,Mainly based on the "Four Point Plan" formulated by the Allies in 1854.The British tried to add the fifth point, seizing the southern Caucasus (Cherks, Georgia, Yerevan and Nashchevan) from the RussiansHowever, the Russians insisted that they occupied these places according to the Treaty of Hadrian Fort, and the Turks also agreed with this statement. However, Russia had to abandon the recently occupied city of Kars. Russia also attempted to reduce the constraints imposed on itself by the third point of the plan (demilitarization of the Black Sea), hoping to exclude Mykolaiv (located 20 kilometers inland of the Bug River) and the Sea of Azov, but was unsuccessful. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
The first point of the "Four Point Plan" concerns the fate of the two duchies on the Danube River. During the negotiations, opinions from all parties were exchanged. What do you think about this?The British basically agreed to let the two principalities return to the Ottoman Empire. The French supported the Romanian liberals and nationalists in their quest to unify the two principalities into an independent country. However, the Austrians rejected the idea of establishing a new country outside their southeast border, because there are a considerable number of Slavic minorities in Austria who also have the idea of founding a country. The Austrians suspect that the French are trying to force themselves to give up northern Italy by supporting Romanians. This suspicion is not unreasonable. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
So although the three countries of Britain, France, and Austria agreed to suspend Russia's protection rights over the two duchies of the Danube River and turn it into a river open to commercial navigation (point 2 of the Four Point Plan), they could not reach a consensus on what should replace it after expelling the Russians Don't forget to share your experience!In the end, it was necessary to propose that the Ottoman Empire should have nominal sovereignty and be jointly guaranteed by Western powers, with vague plans to determine the will of the people of Moldavia and Wallachia for their future at some point in the future. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
as forThe issue of protecting Christians within the Ottoman EmpireIn early January, representatives of the Allied powers met with the Prime Minister in ConstantinopleAli Pasha and Tanzimat reformist Fouad PashaFuad Pasha These two areSudan's representative sent to Paris for negotiations.
Allies demandGaomenWe must make a gesture to demonstrate that we are giving full religious and civil equality to the non Muslim population of the Ottoman Empire, including Jews, and point out that the Allies are serious about this. What do you think about this?
Stratford Cunningham, then British Ambassador to Constantinople Reported the process of this meeting to Clarendon on January 9thBut he himself was skeptical of Türkiye's ministers' determination to reform. He believed that Turks were dissatisfied with foreign pressure to force reform, and believed that doing so would weaken the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, so it was very difficult to really implement the protection of the Christian population. Turks have always believed that Christians are inferior to them. No matter what laws are passed in Sudan, I've found that it's impossible to correct this prejudice in a short time as expected by western countries. What do you think about this?
Canning wrote: "We may have to be prepared to deal with all kinds of delays, probably because of respect for religious aversion, public prejudice and irrelevant habits." He further warned that if the West forces Türkiye to carry out reform, it may lead Muslims to take action against Sudan's westernization policy. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
In response to the 21 point reform plan drafted by representatives of the allied countries, Sudan issued the Hatt-i H ü mayun on February 18th, promising non Muslim subjects full religious and legal equality, the right to own property, the right to join the Ottoman Empire army based on their abilities, and the right to become civil servants. The Turks hoped to prevent European countries from further interfering in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire by committing to these reforms. Don't forget to share your experience!They hoped to exclude the Reform Dahir from the Paris Peace Conference on the grounds that it involved Türkiye's sovereign internal affairs. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
However, as one of the five Western countries that jointly guarantee the safety of Christian subjects under Sudanese rule as stipulated in the Four Point Plan, Russia insists that this reform must be brought to the negotiating table. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Later, Russia agreed to a compromise solution:Gaomen and Western powers jointly signed an international declaration emphasizing the importance of safeguarding the rights of Christians within the Ottoman Empire. In Russia's internal propaganda, this compromise is described as a "moral victory" for Russia in the Crimean War. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
To some extent, the Russians are also right, as the Paris Peace Conference restored the original state of the Church of the Nativity and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was the demand made by Russia on behalf of the Greeks, and the Tsar has repeatedly emphasized this point. Don't forget to share your experience!
On the day of the peace declaration, Alexander thanked heaven for achieving the core goal of the war... Russians! Your efforts and sacrifices were not in vain Don't forget to share your experience!
Finally, there is an unresolved issue: PolandThe issue of restoring Poland's independence from Russian rule was first discussed by the French Foreign MinisterCount ValevskyHe was proposed within the circle of Allied diplomats as the son of Napoleon I and Countess Marie Walewska of Poland. What do you think about this?
After occupying Sevastopol, Napoleon III wanted to do something for Poland, and establishing an independent Poland was in line with his philosophy of creating a new European map and breaking the 1815 pattern. The first thing he supported was Have you tried this before? Share your story!Prince ChertoriskiThe idea of rebuilding the Congress Kingdom of Poland, an autonomous kingdom established under the Vienna Treaty, but its freedom was eroded by Russia. What do you think about this?
After the start of the Peace Conference, Napoleon III was well aware that no other party would advocate for Poland, and his original ideas were no longer realistic. Therefore, he expressed his support for Prince Czartoryski's proposed conditions, including maintaining the status of the Polish language and protecting Poland from Russification. however Let me know your thoughts in the comments!RussiarepresentativeCount OrlovUnaffected, insisting that Russia's ownership of Poland was not based on the 1815 Vienna Treaty, but rather on its conquest of Poland during the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1830-1831. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Napoleon III needed Russia's support to force Austria to abandon northern Italy, so in order to improve relations with Russia, he decided to give up support for Poland. What do you think about this?
For these reasons, the Polish issue is no longer a topic of discussion at the Paris Peace Conference, and even Palmerston, who has never given up any opportunity to confront Russia, has instructed Clarendon not to make a fuss about the Polish issue. Don't forget to share your experience!His explanation is: "It is not appropriate now to demand that Russia restore the Kingdom of Poland
It's hard to say what benefits it can bring to the Polish people. If Poles can truly become independent from Russia, it would be good for both Poles and Europe. But whether I've found that it's for the Polish people or for Europe, the current situation in the Kingdom of Poland and the difference between the conditions stipulated in the Vienna Treaty are not commensurate with the efforts we must make to achieve this goal. The Russian government will say that Poland rebelled in the past and was conquered by Russia, so Russia occupied Poland through military conquest rather than the Vienna Treaty, and is no longer obligated to comply with the treaty's provisions. Russians also say that making demands on the Polish issue is interference in Russia's internal affairs. What do you think about this?
Poor Poland! "Stratford Cunningham said to Lord Harrowby, one of Czartoryski's supporters," Its rebirth is like a flying Dutchman that occasionally flashes, never realized, always waiting Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Due to the resolution of all major issues beforehand, the Paris Peace Conference proceeded smoothly without any major disputes.
After three rounds of talks, the draft peace treaty is ready.
Members of delegations from various countries have a lot of free time to participate in social activities such as banquets, dinners, concerts, dances, welcoming ceremonies, etc., including a special celebration to celebrate the birth of Prince Louis Napoleon, the only child of Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
At 1pm on Sunday, March 30th, diplomats from various delegations gathered together to complete the formal signing of the peace treaty. Don't forget to share your experience!
