Author: James L Gervin
Translator: Liu Lanyu
Publisher: Shanghai People's Publishing House
Publication date: February 1, 2024
introduction
I will use the term 'Syria' to refer to several different geographical regions.
Usually, it refers to the territories under the jurisdiction of the occupied Enemy Territory Administration East (OETA-E) in the eastern region. In other cases, especially when discussing the concept of contemporary geographical division, Syria refers to "Syria within the natural boundary", including today's Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, the "Palestinian entity", the Israeli occupied area, as well as the Republic of Türkiye south of the Torus Mountains, Alexander Tal Province and a small number of leaders in western Iraq. Readers can determine which definition is appropriate based on the context Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
This book focuses on some events that occurred in Syria between October 1918 and July 1920, during the Arab government's rule over Damascus Don't forget to share your experience!.
The uniqueness of this book lies in its aim to examine the competitive construction of the Syrian nation-state and nationalism in the early 20th century, as well as the origins and early development of popular politics and nationalism in the region. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
To highlight the necessity of this study, I will compare two events that occurred several months apart on both sides of the Atlantic. Don't forget to share your experience!
July 20, 1920That is to sayFrancetowardsEmir FaisalOn the sixth day after issuing the ultimatum,Damascus, the capital of SyriaThe uprising broke out. On the fourth day after that, the French army entered Damascus and opened a war against it What do you think about this?25 yearsofmilitary occupation.
The uprising swept through the entire city, with petty bourgeois merchants, neighborhood gangs, unemployed youth, refugees from the Biqa'Valley, and recently disbanded Arab regular army soldiers occupying the streets. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
At the same time, from minbars to various street corners, filled with already adjournedSyrian National AssemblyThe condemnation of former lawmakers, Ulema, and political agitators for the government agreeing to France's demands.
Mass leadersliftsanjak (Sanjaks) and distribute flyers to warn people of conspiracies that endanger the country and describe the crimes committed by French soldiers stationed in the west. Da Bao sneered at the enemy with a patriotic roar, 'Please tell the Pope, clerics, capitalists, and politicians who intends to conquer (Syria).'; The al Kin ā na newspaper claimed on two pages in bold font that“ What do you think about this?Young Syria will never submit to aging France”.
Residents attackedDamascus Shagur(Shaghur) andMeidan areaThe troops loyal to the traitor (kha'in) Emir believe that Emir is cooperating with the country's enemies. Less than two weeks ago, the same group of residents not only disarmed the military and police, but also beat them up because these military and police were trying to carry out the despicable actions of the Arab government Have you tried this before? Share your story!Conscription policy.
When Arab governments attempt to regain control of the streetsRegular army(such as the Bedouin and Yemeni forces that fought alongside the Emir in the Arab uprisings)A battle broke out with the public.
One group of rebels shouted anti Faisal slogans and attacked the palace (Emir had already deployed machine guns on the roof of the palace waiting for the rebels). Another group of rebels launched a fierce attack on Damascus Castle, which was filled with weapons and ammunition. They speculated that there were prisoners imprisoned there Have you tried this before? Share your story!Popular leader Camille CasabKamil al Qassab and other political prisoners.
According to British estimates, more than 100 Damascus people were killed in this round of conflict; Afterwards, Faisal estimated that 120 people were killed and 200 were injured. What do you think about this?
The next day, inspired by the Damascus Uprising,Aleppo Local Defense CommitteeA similar uprising was launched in Aleppo. Under the mobilization of regional governors, police chiefs, and popular leaders, I've found that it's estimated that one-third of the population in the region, or about 4000 people, are from Have you tried this before? Share your story!Neirab City Gate AreaThe lowest level of society launched an attack on Aleppo Castle, seizing and distributing weapons from the castle. On the morning of the following day, another group of rebels caused an explosion during a raid on an arms depot, reportedly resulting in 500-600 deaths and injuries. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
On the afternoon of July 21st, popular leaders traveled throughout the city of Damascus, urging residents toBaramki StationAt Baramki Station, heading west towards Khan Maysalun, General Yusuf al-'Azma is organizing forces to resist the invading French army.
In Baramki,Sheikh Kamal Al KhatibKamal al Khatib presided over the evening prayer and will lead the worshippers towards martyrdom in the expected battle that follows. Out of 1700 volunteers from a neighborhood in Damascus, only 700 were armed. Many of the volunteers had previously resisted the recruitment of Arab government forces, and now they will set off for the front line, hoping to heroically sacrifice themselves in the 'National Jihad al Watani'. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
In the fifth month following the occurrence of the aforementioned event,International Education AssociationDirector of Institute of International EducationStephen P DagenStephen P. Duggan delivered a speech to the American Historical Association,In his speech, he outlined the development of Syrian nationalism in the first few months after the French occupation in the late 19th century Let me know your thoughts in the comments!.
In Dagen's speech, there was a problem discovered by Hayden White in Northrop Frye's work, which White described as a "pre generic plot structure" of tragedy. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Dagen's speech begins with tracing the beautiful beginning and early promises of "Arab nationalism" (the revival of Arab literature in the 19th century, calling for "principles of freedom, equality, and fraternity under national and representative government"), followed by discussing some false hopes (the 1913 Arab Congress, the Arab Uprising, the Anglo French Declaration of November 1918, the King Crane Comission) and tests (the suppression of the Committee of Union and Progress, the politicization of the defense of secret society movements, "seferberlik," and the passion of Syrian martyrs), and finally ends with a detailed discussion. Narrate betrayal and disaster (various wartime agreements, Zionism, and the Balfour Declaration) The Balfour Declaration, as well as the abandonment of Britain and the occupation of France. What do you think about this?
Dagen's comments did not mention the uprising in July, as each plot structure limits historians' choices of research questions and the available options for data selection and organization. In this situation, even if Dagen had truly considered the series of events that occurred in July, he could only treat them as irrelevant or abnormal situations. Some rare historians do include the rebels in their narratives, but their "revolutionary" titles have been changed to "extremist" or "the mob". Don't forget to share your experience!
The reason why Dagen's speech is important is not because I've found that it's so novel, but because it reproduces the main strategies used to expound nationalism in the Arab Middle East region from the Nahda (late 19th century Arab literary revival) to the entire period of trusteeship. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
In fact, not only Dagen's colleagues, but also Thomas Edward Lawrence, John de Vere Loader, Hans Kohn, Richard Coke, and Elizabeth P Historians such as Elizabeth P. MacCallum and supporters of the Arab cause have used the same narrative structure, and over 70 years later, many historians studying nationalism in this region continue to use the same narrative structure. Don't forget to share your experience!
The result of doing so is that various assumptions and inferences arising from this narrative structure are shared by several generations of historians, including a tendency to view the history of nationalism in the Arab world solely as an idealistic history of thought, and to regard a carefully selected group of local elites as the sole originators, carriers, and disseminators of nationalism. Don't forget to share your experience!
Both idealistic and elitist assumptions are aimed at limiting the scope of historical research. In refining a“Arab nationalism”In the process of placing it above all other nationalist constructions, idealistic historians have only made superficial judgments on the various claims of nationalist supporters. In fact, this makes them highly receptive to the view that the existence of nationalism is rooted in a unique Arab identity that has remained unchanged throughout history, namely sociologist Anthony D What Anthony D. Smith said Let me know your thoughts in the comments!ethnic groups(ethnie)
Because the complete recovery of the Arab community is only waiting for the appropriate opportunities and critical political moments, historians studying nationalism in this region have spent an excessive amount of time and experience revealing the contributions made by different intellectuals in "rediscovering" and elucidating the eternal and unchanging unique Arab identity, which has gone through generations of "protonationalism" and nationalism, as well as the timing of the mass dissemination of pragmatic nationalism throughout the Arab Middle East. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
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Syria remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 400 years until the tragic decision of the Istanbul government to join the Allies during World War I. This decision, along with the economic and political turmoil associated with the war, has had a profound impact on Syrian residents. What do you think about this?
From 1914 to 1918,The economic crisis has fiercely impacted the Syrian public classTheir living standards continue to decline and the wealth gap continues to widen. The prices of basic commodities rose during the war, making it almost impossible to buy goods such as coffee, sugar, and rice. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!At the same time, shortages of labor and transportation, seizures of livestock by the Ottoman Fourth Army headquarters in Damascus, as well as a series of natural disasters such as the catastrophic drought during the 1914-1915 harvest season, the locust plague in 1915, and the heat wave that destroyed crop growth in 1916, reduced the harvest in Syria. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
The Allied navies blockaded the Eastern Mediterranean, which had a highly destructive impact on coastal citiesThe blockade continued in various forms until February 1919, exacerbating food shortages in coastal cities. Currency depreciation, hoarding, and government forced requisition further increased commodity prices. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
In July 1917, the actual value of Ottoman banknotes was only about 25% of their face value, and Hulan farmers refused to sell wheat unless buyers paid in gold. In 1918, when the value of Ottoman currency fell to about 14% of its face value, merchants generally refused to accept Ottoman paper currency, even when facing the threat of severe punishment, Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Therefore, many transactions are limited to the form of barter.
For many people,Life in Syria's inland cities is like a nightmareThe Ottoman government frequently refused to pay all or part of the general allowances to widows, orphans, state officials, and retirees. Even if payment is made, I've found that it's the devalued Ottoman currency, making it difficult for people to sustain their livelihoods. Low nutritional level (partly due to the widespread practice of flour adulteration, and partly due to the implementation after 1916) Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Rationing systemThe decrease in per capita consumption, combined with the deterioration of this situation, and the paralysis of municipal services have led to epidemics such as dysentery, herpes, smallpox, diphtheria, malaria, and cholera in Syria's coastal and inland cities. Don't forget to share your experience!
The media reported an increase in suicide, crime, and homelessness rates in Damascus.
In the middle of the war, deserter groups from the Ottoman army threatened the safety of villages around the city, almost stifling local trade. The insecurity in rural areas has, in turn, released a wave of refugees into cities, causing the urban population to continue expanding, reaching almost 500000 people (according to a possibly exaggerated account). The overcrowding of the city, coupled with real estate speculation, sharply increased the cost of housing in and around Damascus, to the point where the average profit margin of urban real estate doubled from 4% to 8% in 1918. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Although war is generally devastating for the general public, its impact on the upper class is mixed. On the one hand, the Ottoman government exiled families of "economic criminals" (speculators), political prisoners, and deserters, and confiscated their property. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
For example, in December 1916, according to the pro Sharif Mecca newspaper al Qibla, the Ottoman authorities arrested 150 Damascus nobles and exiled 100 families to Anatolia. In November 1917, according to another report in the newspaper, 450 families were exiled and their property was confiscated. On the other hand, some merchants did indeed achieve wealth growth through speculation, smuggling, and selling materials to the Ottoman Fourth Army. According to journalist Muhammad Kurd'Ali, "Many businessmen, government officials, and intermediaries became wealthy... [by paying the Ottoman and Arab armies, gold entered Damascus] until Syria became a comfortable and prosperous country in the last two years of the war What do you think about this?
In addition to the direct social and economic impact of the war on the lives of Syrian residents, there are also two related political impacts that have arisen after the outbreak of hostile conflict. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
Firstly, in anticipation of the failure of the Allied powers and the imminent collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and other Allied powers began to negotiate a series of secret agreements outlining a plan for the orderly division of the Ottoman Empire. The Sykes Picot Agreement of 1916 was one of the aforementioned secret agreements, Have you tried this before? Share your story!The regulation divides the Arab provinces of the empire into two regions directly and indirectly controlled by Britain and France, respectively. Don't forget to share your experience!Although the agreement was later modified to accommodate unforeseen events during negotiations, the Sykes Picot Agreement provided a basis for the early post-war national sovereignty dispute and diplomatic efforts. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
The second political impact related to war isMecca Hashemite(Hashemite)Family representativeEstablishment in Damascus.1916As part of the large-scale resistance against Ottoman Empire rule,The British encourage Sharif Hussein(Sharif Husayn) and his sonThe Uprising Against the Ottoman Monarch, which is highly praisedArab Revolt .
In an exchange of letters, Britain promised to support armed struggle and support the establishment of one or more independent Arab countries after the end of the fighting. Don't forget to share your experience!Emir Faisal, one of Sharif's sonsAppointed as the head of the northern Arab army, participated in the British led battles in the region from northern Hanzhi, Palestine to present-day Syria. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
According to a general view (based on an American observer's summary of the event shortly after Emir entered Damascus), Faisal's "appearance and behavior are likable, and he is broad-minded and friendly towards all parties. However, he is not an iron fisted figure, surrounded by a group of smart, cunning, and unscrupulous politicians who can easily influence Faisal". Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
Although the chain of command linking the British, Faisal and the appointed Syrian military chief was chaotic after the capture of Damascus, the British recognition, together with the family (Sharif) and military reputation, and the wise use of force at the beginning, made What do you think about this?The young Emir has enough power to establish himself as the 'highest authority in Syrian Arab administrative and military affairs'.
This arrangement is not without controversy.
When British, Australian and Arab troops entered Damascus, the Turks had abandoned the city. In order to maintain order during the brief transitional period, several groups attempted to establish a governing body in the city. Don't forget to share your experience!
When Damascus was about to fall,Jamal Pasha, the last Ottoman ruler of SyriaAppointed by Jamal Pasha, al SaghirSayyid JazairiSa'id al-Jaza'iri formed a National Guard to maintain order. Although Jazairi was a newcomer, his family gained outstanding prestige in local affairs by quelling the inter community riots that had plagued Damascus since 1860. What do you think about this?
Sayyid Jazairi recruited Ottoman army officersSheikh Lida Atal(Shaykh Rida al-‘Attar) Atal is also the son of a prominent Syrian judge family and a leader of the regional police force Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Amin Tarabulshi(Amin al-Tarabulsi)
Prominent figures from other Damascus residents quickly joined their causeThis includes Faris al Khuri, Tahir al Jaza'iri, Ata al Ayyubi, Badi 'al Mu'ayyad, Shakir al Hanbali, Sa'da Kahala, Amin al Tamimi, and Sheikh Abdul Qadir al Khatib, who was a former preacher at the Umayyad Mosque. Khatib was appointed by Jazairi as the Chairman of the Autonomous City of Damascus. Don't forget to share your experience!
·(Mahmud al-Barudi)“”(lajna waṭaniyya)
··(Shukri al-Ayyubi)“”His brother Abdul Qadir al Jaza'iri was appointed as the commander of the Arab cavalry unit, and Shukri Ayubi was appointed as the military governor. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
We may never know the true attitude of Jazairi and his government towards Faisal and the Arab uprising; Similarly, I've found that it's difficult for us to assess whether the two sides can finally reach some form of reconciliation to protect them from British intervention. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
No matter how many possibilities there are, these things ultimately did not happen:Thomas Edward Lawrence, as the liaison between the British and Arab armiesBelieving in their influence over the young Emir, they viewed the people of Jazairi and their supporters of Damascus and the "Moors" as a threat to their prot é g é, and therefore openly despised the Jazairi brothers and their organized government. Don't forget to share your experience!
"They are both crazy and pro Turks, and are the most disgusting religious fanatics", he wrote: "So I called them here and announced the dissolution of the Alabian military governor Shukri Ayubi (the former governor Ali Risa disappeared) and the temporary government of Jazairi in the name of Faisal representatives before Beladiyeh and Sheukh el harrat. They were quite uncomfortable and had to be sent home. Don't forget to share your experience!
Although Faisal and his followers were able to quickly eliminate their opponents from their positions of power with the help of the British (Abdul Kadir Jazairi was shot dead in a controversial environment shortly after the British Arab coalition entered Damascus), many important Damascus people were dissatisfied with the new ruler and felt oppressed by force. What do you think about this?
After the Anglo Arab coalition entered Damascus, Arab forces rushed north to gain control of Homs, Hama, and AleppoAt the same time,The British army handed over control of Amman in the south to a local representative of the Emir.
On October 22, 1918, military operations were carried out in SyriaEgyptian Expeditionary Force Commander and General of the Egyptian Expeditionary ForceSir Edmund Heinman AllenbySir Edmund H. Allenby controlled itFormer Ottoman TerritoryDivided intoTwo administrative regionsHe placed the entire inland area from northern Hanzhi to Damascus and Aleppo inEastern Occupation Zone GovernmentUnder the jurisdiction of OETA East, it will include pre warOttoman Beirut ProvinceAnd inland townsHasbaya, Rashaya, Mu'allaqa, Ba'albakThe coastal area is locatedWestern Occupation Zone GovernmentUnder the jurisdiction of OETA West.
Due to the western region being under the control of the French government, Britain approved the establishment of a temporary Arab government led by Emir Faisal in the inland eastern region. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
stayThe Arab government is fully operationalPreviously, Faisal, his close allies from the Arab military, and a group of selected non military government officials attempted to win the support of the people and establish direct contact with the residents of the areas under his control. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!Faisal governmentThe welfare programs of the Ottoman government, which were suspended during the war, have been reinstated, and allowances have been paid to war widows, orphans, former Ottoman civil servants, and their families. The government also made efforts to maintain price stability and prevent food shortages in the city center. To this end, the government directly purchased grains from Haolan farmers, established committees in each block to supervise the distribution of food, and periodically distributed grains from their occupied barns to the poor in the city, and seeds to impoverished farmers. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
In order to let the public know about the generosity of Arab governments, senior officials often visit Damascus neighborhoods and other cities with a group of bureaucrats, journalists, and even poets who write and recite hymns praising Emir Faisal or the government, and hold grand ceremonies to distribute gifts while visiting rural areas. Don't forget to share your experience!
For example,Eastern occupation zoneThe first Military Governor GeneralAli Lida LikabiAli Rida al Rikabi conducted a nationwide tour of Syria in January 1919. According to an accompanying journalist's account, after entering a village, Rikabi asked local farmers to discuss the situation and existing problems, and urged them to tell him directly when they were wronged. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
In Homs, Likabi announced a general amnesty for prisoners, awarded honorary titles to Syrian soldiers who had fought in the Ottoman army and returned from Anatolia, and allocated funds for their transportation and resettlement. Have you tried this before? Share your story!
In Hama and Aleppo, he distributed seeds to local villagers, deferred farmers' debts, donated to local charities, and ordered the construction of public works. What do you think about this?
The parade of Rickaby lasted until the spring of 1920. According to his last recorded tour (which appeared in the account of the same journalist), Rikabi visited different neighborhoods in Damascus and inspected bakers' ovens. When he found that the flour was adulterated or short of weight, he immediately ordered the arrest of the responsible person. Other high-level government officials, including Emir Faisal himself, have also conducted similar parades. What do you think about this?
Arab governments have not only targeted their good deeds and propaganda towards farmers and urban masses.British officials often complain that the subsidies they pay to Arab governments are used to buy loyalty from wealthy and powerful Syrians. What do you think about this?The government bribes tribal leaders, politicians, members of political and cultural organizations, and journalists.
The records of Arab government financial advisor Sa'id Shuqayr are filled with traces of political briberyAllocate 16000 Egyptian pounds (P.E.) to the nobles of Junia; 100 Egyptian pounds to the Grand Rabbi of Damascus; 25000 Egyptian pounds for propaganda work in Beirut; 1500 Egyptian pounds were allocated to the Eastern Orthodox Church in Damascus. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
In June 1919 alone, Shujiaer recorded a large amount of "donations" or "irregular extraordinary expenditures", which were paid to the following individuals Don't forget to share your experience!
Nasib al Atrash, Adil Arslan, and their Druze leaders;
Sheikh of the Diab, Dahumisha, and Mazarib tribes;
Awda Abi Tayah and Ibn Awda Abi Tayah of the Huwaytat tribe;
Nuri al-Sha'lan of the Ruwala tribe;
Greek Catholic Club, Moslem Christian Committee, Alliance Committee, Alliance Israel, and Literary Society;
Abdul Qadir Khatib;
Yusuf al-'Azma, who was later appointed by Faisal as the Chairman of the Arab Government War Committee;
Activists Fa'iz al Khuri and Murad Rushdi from the Arab Club;
Gabriel Haddad, the Chief of the German Military Police (this amount is marked as "furniture expenses" in the records);
Visiting various Bedouin delegations in Damascus (accommodation and food expenses);
Newspaper owners, etc.
Similar expenditures reached 22387 Egyptian pounds in the following month, approximately one tenth of the government's planned revenue.
Despite all the efforts made, Arab governments still only enjoy superficial authority outside of Damascus.
The government agencies regulating the occupied eastern region are cumbersome and inefficient: in fact, they consist of vague and sometimes contradictory power systems that connect Allenby, Faisal, Ricabi, and bureaucratic institutions together. Let me know your thoughts in the comments!
In addition, local governments that regulate most city administrative agencies are still controlled by local elites, whose concerns and interests often conflict with Arab governments and their representatives sent from Damascus. The city leaders are envious of the Arab government's massive attention to the capital and are afraid of the centralized policies that are considered to be planned by the new rich and foreigners. They are not only angry at the Arab government's appropriation of domestic and foreign income sources, but also dissatisfied with its arrogance and inefficiency. Don't forget to share your experience!
The relationship between Aleppo nobles and the Damascus government is particularly tense, as they have differences on issues such as foreign policy and trade. What do you think about this?
When Emir visited the north for the first time in 1918, he publicly recalled that the residents of the city lacked help for the Arab uprising, and then dissolved the local administrative council (Majlis al Shura) and appointed a management committee composed of its supporters. Their relationship became particularly tense in the spring of 1920, when a delegation composed of prominent figures from Aleppo came to Damascus to celebrate the coronation of Faisal as the King of Syria. It is said that during the ceremony, the delegation demanded autonomy over their city and surrounding rural areas. Have you tried this before? Share your story!